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- Volume 45, 2000
Annual Review of Entomology - Volume 45, 2000
Volume 45, 2000
- Review Articles
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Parasitic Mites of Honey Bees: Life History, Implications, and Impact
Vol. 45 (2000), pp. 519–548More Less▪ AbstractThe hive of the honey bee is a suitable habitat for diverse mites (Acari), including nonparasitic, omnivorous, and pollen-feeding species, and parasites. The biology and damage of the three main pest species Acarapis woodi, Varroa jacobsoni, and Tropilaelaps clareae is reviewed, along with detection and control methods. The hypothesis that Acarapis woodi is a recently evolved species is rejected. Mite-associated bee pathologies (mostly viral) also cause increasing losses to apiaries. Future studies on bee mites are beset by three main problems: (a) The recent discovery of several new honey bee species and new bee-parasitizing mite species (along with the probability that several species are masquerading under the name Varroa jacobsoni) may bring about new bee-mite associations and increase damage to beekeeping; (b) methods for studying bee pathologies caused by viruses are still largely lacking; (c) few bee- and consumer-friendly methods for controlling bee mites in large apiaries are available.
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Insect Pest Management in Tropical Asian Irrigated Rice
Vol. 45 (2000), pp. 549–574More Less▪ AbstractAbundant natural enemies in tropical Asian irrigated rice usually prevent significant insect pest problems. Integrated pest management (IPM) extension education of depth and quality is required to discourage unnecessary insecticide use that upsets this natural balance, and to empower farmers as expert managers of a healthy paddy ecosystem. Farmers' skill and collaboration will be particularly important for sustainable exploitation of the potential of new, higher-yielding and pestresistant rices. IPM “technology transfer” through training and visit (T&V) extension systems failed, although mass media campaigns encouraging farmer participatory research can reduce insecticide use. The “farmer first” approach of participatory nonformal education in farmer field schools, followed by community IPM activities emphasizing farmer-training-farmer and research by farmers, has had greater success in achieving IPM implementation. Extension challenges are a key topic for rice IPM research, and new pest management technology must promote, rather than endanger, ecological balance in rice paddies.
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Polyene hydrocarbons and epoxides: A Second Major Class of Lepidopteran Sex Attractant Pheromones
Vol. 45 (2000), pp. 575–604More Less▪ AbstractPolyene hydrocarbons and epoxides are used as pheromone components and sex attractants by four macrolepidopteran families: the Geometridae, Noctuidae, Arctiidae, and Lymantriidae. They constitute a second major class of lepidopteran pheromones, different from the C10-C18 acetates, alcohols, and aldehydes commonly found in other species. They are biosynthesized from diet-derived linoleic or linolenic acids and are characterized by C17-C23 straight chains, 1-3 cis double bonds separated by methylene groups, and 0, 1, or 2 epoxide functions. Pheromone blends are created from components with different chain lengths, numbers of double bonds, and functional groups, or from mixtures of epoxide regioisomers or enantiomers, with several examples of synergism between enantiomers. Behavioral antagonists also limit interspecific attraction, with numerous examples of antagonism by enantiomers. This review summarizes the taxonomic distribution, mechanisms used to generate unique pheromone blends, and the identification, synthesis, and biosynthesis of these compounds.
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Insect Parapheromones in Olfaction Research and Semiochemical-Based Pest Control Strategies
Vol. 45 (2000), pp. 605–630More Less▪ AbstractThe possibility of disrupting the chemical communication of insect pests has initiated the development of new semiochemicals, parapheromones, which are anthropogenic compounds structurally related to natural pheromone components. Modification at the chain and/or at the polar group, isosteric replacements, halogenation or introduction of labeled atoms have been the most common modifications of the pheromone structure. Parapheromones have shown a large variety of effects, and accordingly have been called agonists, pheromone mimics, synergists and hyperagonists, or else pheromone antagonists, antipheromones and inhibitors. Pheromone analogues have been used in quantitative structure-activity relationship studies of insect olfaction, and from a practical point of view they can replace pheromones when these are costly to prepare or unstable under field conditions.
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Pest Management Strategies in Traditional Agriculture: An African Perspective
Vol. 45 (2000), pp. 631–659More Less▪ AbstractAfrican agriculture is largely traditional—characterized by a large number of smallholdings of no more than one ha per household. Crop production takes place under extremely variable agro-ecological conditions, with annual rainfall ranging from 250 to 750 mm in the Sahel in the northwest and in the semi-arid east and south, to 1500 to 4000 mm in the forest zones in the central west. Farmers often select well-adapted, stable crop varieties, and cropping systems are such that two or more crops are grown in the same field at the same time. These diverse traditional systems enhance natural enemy abundance and generally keep pest numbers at low levels. Pest management practice in traditional agriculture is a built-in process in the overall crop production system rather than a separate well-defined activity. Increased population pressure and the resulting demand for increased crop production in Africa have necessitated agricultural expansion with the concomitant decline in the overall biodiversity. Increases in plant material movement in turn facilitated the accidental introduction of foreign pests. At present about two dozen arthropod pests, both introduced and native, are recognized as one of the major constraints to agricultural production and productivity in Africa. Although yield losses of 0% to 100% have been observed on-station, the economic significance of the majority of pests under farmers’ production conditions is not adequately understood. Economic and social constraints have kept pesticide use in Africa the lowest among all the world regions. The bulk of pesticides are applied mostly against pests of commercial crops such as cotton, vegetables, coffee, and cocoa, and to some extent for combating outbreaks of migratory pests such as the locusts. The majority of African farmers still rely on indigenous pest management approaches to manage pest problems, although many government extension programs encourage the use of pesticides. The current pest management research activities carried out by national or international agricultural research programs in Africa focus on classical biological control and host plant resistance breeding. With the exception of classical biological control of the cassava mealybug, research results have not been widely adopted. This could be due to African farmers facing heterogeneous conditions, not needing fixed prescriptions or one ideal variety but a number of options and genotypes to choose from. Indigenous pest management knowledge is site-specific and should be the basis for developing integrated pest management (IPM) techniques. Farmers often lack the biological and ecological information necessary to develop better pest management through experimentation. Formal research should be instrumental in providing the input necessary to facilitate participatory technology development such as that done by Farmer Field Schools, an approach now emerging in different parts of Africa.
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The Development and Evolution of Exaggerated Morphologies in Insects
Vol. 45 (2000), pp. 661–708More Less▪ AbstractWe discuss a framework for studying the evolution of morphology in insects, based on the concepts of “phenotypic plasticity” and “reaction norms.” We illustrate this approach with the evolution of some of the most extreme morphologies in insects: exaggerated, sexually selected male ornaments and weapons, and elaborate social insect soldier castes. Most of these traits scale with body size, and these scaling relationships are often nonlinear. We argue that scaling relationships are best viewed as reaction norms, and that the evolution of exaggerated morphological traits results from genetic changes in the slope and/or shape of these scaling relationships. After reviewing literature on sexually selected and caste-specific structures, we suggest two possible routes to the evolution of exaggerated trait dimensions: (a) the evolution of steeper scaling relationship slopes and (b) the evolution of sigmoid or discontinuous scaling relationship shapes. We discuss evolutionary implications of these two routes to exaggeration and suggest why so many of the most exaggerated insect structures scale nonlinearly with body size. Finally, we review literature on insect development to provide a comprehensive picture of how scaling relationships arise and to suggest how they may be modified through evolution.
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Phylogenetic System and Zoogeography of the Plecoptera
Vol. 45 (2000), pp. 709–746More Less▪ AbstractInformation about the phylogenetic relationships of Plecoptera is summarized. The few characters supporting monophyly of the order are outlined. Several characters of possible significance for the search for the closest relatives of the stoneflies are discussed, but the sister-group of the order remains unknown. Numerous characters supporting the presently recognized phylogenetic system of Plecoptera are presented, alternative classifications are discussed, and suggestions for future studies are made. Notes on zoogeography are appended. The order as such is old (Permian fossils), but phylogenetic relationships and global distribution patterns suggest that evolution of the extant suborders started with the breakup of Pangaea. There is evidence of extensive recent speciation in all parts of the world.
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Impact of the Internet on Entomology Teaching and Research
J. T. Zenger, and T. J. WalkerVol. 45 (2000), pp. 747–767More Less▪ AbstractThe Internet is affecting entomology teaching and research. Internet tools help students communicate and easily find and access information. Entomology instructors who adopt these tools may discover they are surprisingly time consuming to implement. Requiring students to use the Internet teaches them to glean from the glut of available information and to communicate electronically, both vital skills in today’s workplace. The Internet helps meet the growing need for distance education by providing a medium that allows students to conveniently access course materials and to communicate with the instructor and other students. Researchers benefit from using the Internet for one-to-one and one-to-many communication and from access to large cooperative databases, for example, in molecular biology and systematics. Perhaps the greatest impact on research will be the migration to the Web of journals and other specialized research literature. This may permit free access and will change the content and format of journal articles.
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Molecular Mechanism and Cellular Distribution of Insect Circadian Clocks
Vol. 45 (2000), pp. 769–793More Less▪ AbstractCircadian clocks are endogenous timing mechanisms that control molecular, cellular, physiological, and behavioral rhythms in all organisms from unicellulars to humans. Circadian rhythms influence many aspects of insect biology, finetuning life functions to the light and temperature cycles associated with the solar day. Genetic studies in the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster have led to the cloning and characterization of several genes involved in the mechanism of the circadian clock. Periodic transcription and translation of these clock genes form the basis of a molecular feedback loop that has a “circa” 24-hour period. Rhythmic expression of clock genes in specific brain neurons appears to control behavioral rhythms in adult flies. However, clock genes are also expressed in other tissues, both within and outside of the nervous system. These observations prompted chronobiologists to investigate whether nonneural tissues possess intrinsic circadian clocks, what role they may be playing, and what the relationships are between clocks in the nervous system and those in peripheral tissues. Answers to those questions are providing important insights into the overall organization of the circadian system in insects.
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Impact of the Internet on Extension Entomology
Vol. 45 (2000), pp. 795–802More Less▪ AbstractAcceptance of the Internet as a common method for transferring entomological information has forced a re-evaluation of extension entomology’s role. The discipline of entomology was an early adopter of Internet-based information delivery and organization on both Gopher and the World Wide Web. New opportunities exist for immediate presentation and collection of information, but organization and categorization of information for timely retrieval remains a challenge. Metadata strategies, computer literacy, and integration of the Internet with current workflow paradigms promise to change the way extension entomology is done in the near future.
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Previous Volumes
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Volume 69 (2024)
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Volume 68 (2023)
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Volume 67 (2022)
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Volume 66 (2021)
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Volume 65 (2020)
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Volume 64 (2019)
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Volume 63 (2018)
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Volume 62 (2017)
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Volume 61 (2016)
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Volume 60 (2015)
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Volume 59 (2014)
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Volume 58 (2013)
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Volume 57 (2012)
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Volume 56 (2011)
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Volume 55 (2010)
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Volume 54 (2009)
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Volume 53 (2008)
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Volume 52 (2007)
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Volume 51 (2006)
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Volume 50 (2005)
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Volume 49 (2004)
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Volume 48 (2003)
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Volume 47 (2002)
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Volume 46 (2001)
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Volume 45 (2000)
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Volume 44 (1999)
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Volume 43 (1998)
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Volume 42 (1997)
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Volume 41 (1996)
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Volume 40 (1995)
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Volume 39 (1994)
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Volume 38 (1993)
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Volume 37 (1992)
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Volume 36 (1991)
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Volume 35 (1990)
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Volume 34 (1989)
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Volume 33 (1988)
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Volume 32 (1987)
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Volume 31 (1986)
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Volume 30 (1985)
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Volume 29 (1984)
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Volume 28 (1983)
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Volume 27 (1982)
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Volume 26 (1981)
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Volume 25 (1980)
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Volume 24 (1979)
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Volume 23 (1978)
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Volume 22 (1977)
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Volume 21 (1976)
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Volume 20 (1975)
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Volume 19 (1974)
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Volume 18 (1973)
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Volume 17 (1972)
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Volume 16 (1971)
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Volume 15 (1970)
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Volume 14 (1969)
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Volume 13 (1968)
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Volume 12 (1967)
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Volume 11 (1966)
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Volume 10 (1965)
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Volume 9 (1964)
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Volume 8 (1963)
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Volume 7 (1962)
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Volume 6 (1961)
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Volume 5 (1960)
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Volume 4 (1959)
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Volume 3 (1958)
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Volume 2 (1957)
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Volume 1 (1956)
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Volume 0 (1932)