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- Volume 55, 2010
Annual Review of Entomology - Volume 55, 2010
Volume 55, 2010
- Preface
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The Making of a Medical Entomologist
Vol. 55 (2010), pp. 1–17More LessThis article describes the childhood of Mike Service, his very early interest in insects, his time at Imperial College, London University, and his career in Nigeria studying the taxonomy and biology of anopheline malaria vectors. On his return to England he became increasingly interested in the ecology and population dynamics of hematophagous insects. After almost eight years undertaking only research, he joined the Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, where he was involved in lecturing as well as research and engaged in frequent overseas travel mainly to Africa, Central and South America, and Asia. On retirement he retains an active interest in medical entomology. Although he undertook a considerable amount of taxonomic work on mosquitoes, he believes his most important, and possibly influential, work was introducing ecological methods that were used by agricultural scientists to the study of mosquitoes. For example, the construction of life tables, calculating the percentage mortality of pre-adult mosquitoes, and the identification of predators by serological methods.
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Ecology of Herbivorous Arthropods in Urban Landscapes
Vol. 55 (2010), pp. 19–38More LessUrbanization affects communities of herbivorous arthropods and provides opportunities for dramatic changes in their abundance and richness. Underlying these changes are creation of impervious surfaces; variation in the density, diversity, and complexity of vegetation; and maintenance practices including pulsed inputs of fertilizers, water, and pesticides. A rich body of knowledge provides theoretical underpinnings for predicting and understanding impacts of urbanization on arthropods. However, relatively few studies have elucidated mechanisms that explain patterns of insect and mite abundance and diversity across urbanization gradients. Published accounts suggest that responses to urbanization are often taxon specific, highly variable, and linked to properties of urbanization that weaken top-down and/or bottom-up processes, thereby destabilizing populations of herbivores and their natural enemies. In addition to revealing patterns in diversity and abundance of herbivores across urbanization gradients, a primary objective of this review is to examine mechanisms underlying these patterns and to identify potential hypotheses for future testing.
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Causes and Consequences of Cannibalism in Noncarnivorous Insects
Vol. 55 (2010), pp. 39–53More LessWe review the primary literature to document the incidence of cannibalism among insects that typically are not carnivorous. Most of the cannibalistic species were coleopterans and lepidopterans, and the cannibals often were juveniles that aggregate or that overlap in phenology with the egg stage. Cannibalism can be adaptive by improving growth rate, survivorship, vigor, longevity, and fecundity. It also can play an important role in regulating population density and suppressing population outbreaks, stabilizing host plant–insect relationships, and reducing parasitism rates. Cannibalism often was favored by density-dependent factors for herbivores that feed in concealed feeding situations (such as stem borers, leafminers), but also by density-independent factors (such as high ambient temperature) for herbivores that feed in exposed feeding situations.
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Insect Biodiversity and Conservation in Australasia
Vol. 55 (2010), pp. 55–75More LessAustralasia, which consists of Australia and the adjacent islands of the southwestern Pacific Ocean, has an insect diversity approximately proportional to the land mass. This diversity is distinctive, with some major groups missing and others having radiated. Iconic species are familiar to most people living in Australia and New Zealand, and a range of insects once contributed to Aboriginal Australian culture and diet. Conservation of Australasian entomological biodiversity is an increasing challenge for contemporary scientists. Examples are provided of insect conservation schemes from New Guinea, New Zealand, and Australia. Funding for insect biodiversity studies beyond flagship species is needed.
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Ekbom Syndrome: The Challenge of “Invisible Bug” Infestations
Vol. 55 (2010), pp. 77–94More LessEkbom Syndrome is synonymous with delusory parasitosis, a belief that one's body is infested by invisible bugs. Persons suffering from this syndrome often claim to feel dermal sensations and to visualize the bugs, although no one else can see them. Ekbom Syndrome is a delusional condition; it is intractable and cannot be corrected by argument or evidence. Ekbom Syndrome sufferers exhibit a range of predictable behaviors in their attempts to eliminate their infestations, including seeking identifications and treatment from physicians and entomologists. Frequently they also experience comorbid psychological conditions. Because this is a delusional affliction, successful treatment typically requires neuroleptic medications, necessitating intervention by medical professionals.
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Update on Powassan Virus: Emergence of a North American Tick-Borne Flavivirus
Vol. 55 (2010), pp. 95–110More LessPowassan virus (POW) (Flaviviridae: Flavivirus) is the cause of rare but severe neuroinvasive disease in North America and Russia. The virus is transmitted among small- and medium-sized mammals by ixodid ticks. Human infections occur via spillover from the main transmission cycle(s). Since the late 1990s, the incidence of human disease seems to be increasing. In addition, POW constitutes a genetically diverse group of virus genotypes, including Deer tick virus, that are maintained in distinct enzootic transmission cycles. This review highlights recent research into POW, focusing on virus genetics and ecology and human disease. Important directions for future research are also discussed.
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Beyond Drosophila: RNAi In Vivo and Functional Genomics in Insects
Vol. 55 (2010), pp. 111–128More LessThe increasing availability of insect genomes has revealed a large number of genes with unknown functions and the resulting problem of how to discover these functions. The RNA interference (RNAi) technique, which generates loss-of-function phenotypes by depletion of a chosen transcript, can help to overcome this challenge. RNAi can unveil the functions of new genes, lead to the discovery of new functions for old genes, and find the genes for old functions. Moreover, the possibility of studying the functions of homologous genes in different species can allow comparisons of the genetic networks regulating a given function in different insect groups, thereby facilitating an evolutionary insight into developmental processes. RNAi also has drawbacks and obscure points, however, such as those related to differences in species sensitivity. Disentangling these differences is one of the main challenges in the RNAi field.
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Dicistroviruses
Vol. 55 (2010), pp. 129–150More LessDicistroviruses are members of a recently defined and rapidly growing family of picornavirus-like RNA viruses called the Dicistroviridae. Dicistroviruses are pathogenic to beneficial arthropods such as honey bees and shrimp and to insect pests of medical and agricultural importance. Our understanding of these viruses is uneven. We present highly advanced studies of the virus particle structure, remarkable mechanisms of internal ribosome entry in translation of viral RNA, and the use of dicistroviruses to study the insect immune system. However, little is known about dicistrovirus RNA replication mechanisms or gene function, except by comparison with picornaviruses. The recent construction of infectious clones of dicistrovirus genomes may fill these gaps in knowledge. We discuss economically important diseases caused by dicistroviruses. Future research may lead to protection of beneficial arthropods from dicistroviruses and to application of dicistroviruses as biopesticides targeting pestiferous insects.
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Olive Fruit Fly: Managing an Ancient Pest in Modern Times
Vol. 55 (2010), pp. 151–169More LessOlive fruit fly, Bactrocera oleae (Rossi) (Diptera: Tephritidae), is the major pest of commercial olives worldwide. Various aspects of its biology, ecology, management, and impact on olive production are highlighted. With the discovery of insecticidal resistance in some populations frequently treated with organophosphates, old and new control options are being investigated. The potential of biological control is examined. Surveys suggest that a small group of braconids in the Opiinae subfamily best represent the primary parasitoids attacking olive fruit fly in its native range. These species include Psyttalia lounsburyi, P. dacicida, P. concolor, P. ponerophaga, and Utetes africanus. Bracon celer, another braconid but in the Braconinae subfamily, is also reared from the fruit fly in its native range. The potential of these and other natural enemies is discussed with respect to olive fruit fly biology, commercial olive production, and biological constraints that may limit their success. We suggest that numerous species exist that should be further investigated as control agents for olive fruit fly in the many climatic regimes where the pest is found.
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Insect Silk: One Name, Many Materials
Vol. 55 (2010), pp. 171–188More LessSilks play a crucial role in the survival and reproduction of many insects. Labial glands, Malpighian tubules, and a variety of dermal glands have evolved to produce these silks. The glands synthesize silk proteins, which become semicrystalline when formed into fibers. Although each silk contains one dominant crystalline structure, the range of molecular structures that can form silk fibers is greater than any other structural protein group. On the basis of silk gland type, silk protein molecular structure, and the phylogenetic relationship of silk-producing species, we grouped insect silks into 23 distinct categories, each likely to represent an independent evolutionary event. Despite having diverse functions and fundamentally different protein structures, these silks typically have high levels of protein crystallinity and similar amino acid compositions. The substantial crystalline content confers extraordinary mechanical properties and stability to silk and appears to be required for production of fine protein fibers.
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Bayesian Phylogenetics and Its Influence on Insect Systematics
Vol. 55 (2010), pp. 189–206More LessBayesian inference and Markov chain Monte Carlo techniques have enjoyed enormous popularity since they were introduced into phylogenetics about a decade ago. We provide an overview of the field, with emphasis on recent developments of importance to empirical systematists. In particular, we describe a number of recent advances in the stochastic modeling of evolution that address major deficiencies in current models in a computationally efficient way. These include models of process heterogeneity across sites and lineages, as well as alignment-free models and model averaging approaches. Many of these methods should find their way into standard analyses in the near future. We also summarize the influence of Bayesian methods on insect systematics, with particular focus on current practices and how they could be improved using existing and emerging techniques.
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Insect Fat Body: Energy, Metabolism, and Regulation
Vol. 55 (2010), pp. 207–225More LessThe fat body plays major roles in the life of insects. It is a dynamic tissue involved in multiple metabolic functions. One of these functions is to store and release energy in response to the energy demands of the insect. Insects store energy reserves in the form of glycogen and triglycerides in the adipocytes, the main fat body cell. Insect adipocytes can store a great amount of lipid reserves as cytoplasmic lipid droplets. Lipid metabolism is essential for growth and reproduction and provides energy needed during extended nonfeeding periods. This review focuses on energy storage and release and summarizes current understanding of the mechanisms underlying these processes in insects.
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Sex Differences in Phenotypic Plasticity Affect Variation in Sexual Size Dimorphism in Insects: From Physiology to Evolution
Vol. 55 (2010), pp. 227–245More LessMales and females of nearly all animals differ in their body size, a phenomenon called sexual size dimorphism (SSD). The degree and direction of SSD vary considerably among taxa, including among populations within species. A considerable amount of this variation is due to sex differences in body size plasticity. We examine how variation in these sex differences is generated by exploring sex differences in plasticity in growth rate and development time and the physiological regulation of these differences (e.g., sex differences in regulation by the endocrine system). We explore adaptive hypotheses proposed to explain sex differences in plasticity, including those that predict that plasticity will be lowest for traits under strong selection (adaptive canalization) or greatest for traits under strong directional selection (condition dependence), but few studies have tested these hypotheses. Studies that combine proximate and ultimate mechanisms offer great promise for understanding variation in SSD and sex differences in body size plasticity in insects.
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Facultative Symbionts in Aphids and the Horizontal Transfer of Ecologically Important Traits
Vol. 55 (2010), pp. 247–266More LessAphids engage in symbiotic associations with a diverse assemblage of heritable bacteria. In addition to their obligate nutrient-provisioning symbiont, Buchnera aphidicola, aphids may also carry one or more facultative symbionts. Unlike obligate symbionts, facultative symbionts are not generally required for survival or reproduction and can invade novel hosts, based on both phylogenetic analyses and transfection experiments. Facultative symbionts are mutualistic in the context of various ecological interactions. Experiments on pea aphids (Acyrthosiphon pisum) have demonstrated that facultative symbionts protect against entomopathogenic fungi and parasitoid wasps, ameliorate the detrimental effects of heat, and influence host plant suitability. The protective symbiont, Hamiltonella defensa, has a dynamic genome, exhibiting evidence of recombination, phage-mediated gene uptake, and horizontal gene transfer and containing virulence and toxin-encoding genes. Although transmitted maternally with high fidelity, facultative symbionts occasionally move horizontally within and between species, resulting in the instantaneous acquisition of ecologically important traits, such as parasitoid defense.
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Honey Bees as a Model for Vision, Perception, and Cognition
Vol. 55 (2010), pp. 267–284More LessAmong the so-called simpler organisms, the honey bee is one of the few examples of an animal with a highly evolved social structure, a rich behavioral repertoire, an exquisite navigational system, an elaborate communication system, and an extraordinary ability to learn colors, shapes, fragrances, and navigational routes quickly and accurately. This review examines vision and complex visually mediated behavior in the honey bee, outlining the structure and function of the compound eyes, the perception and discrimination of colors and shapes, the learning of complex tasks, the ability to establish and exploit complex associations, and the capacity to abstract general principles from a task and apply them to tackle novel situations. All this is accomplished by a brain that weighs less than a milligram and carries fewer than a million neurons, thus making the bee a promising subject in which to study a variety of fundamental questions about behavior and brain function.
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Invasion Biology, Ecology, and Management of the Light Brown Apple Moth (Tortricidae)
Vol. 55 (2010), pp. 285–306More LessEpiphyas postvittana (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), the light brown apple moth (LBAM), is an important leafroller pest with an exceptionally wide host range that includes many horticultural crops and other woody and herbaceous plants. LBAM is native to southeastern Australia but has invaded Western Australia, New Zealand, Hawaii, much of England, and in 2007, it was confirmed as established in California. The discovery of this pest in California has led to a major detection and regulatory effort because of concerns about economic and environmental impacts. Its recent discovery in Sweden is also of note. LBAM has often been intercepted on imports of fruit and other plant parts, and it has the potential to become a successful invader in temperate and subtropical regions worldwide. The importance of the insect has prompted development of classical biological control programs together with a wide variety of other management interventions that can be used in integrated pest management or integrated pest eradication.
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Feeding Mechanisms of Adult Lepidoptera: Structure, Function, and Evolution of the Mouthparts
Vol. 55 (2010), pp. 307–327More LessThe form and function of the mouthparts in adult Lepidoptera and their feeding behavior are reviewed from evolutionary and ecological points of view. The formation of the suctorial proboscis encompasses a fluid-tight food tube, special linking structures, modified sensory equipment, and novel intrinsic musculature. The evolution of these functionally important traits can be reconstructed within the Lepidoptera. The proboscis movements are explained by a hydraulic mechanism for uncoiling, whereas recoiling is governed by the intrinsic proboscis musculature and the cuticular elasticity. Fluid uptake is accomplished by the action of the cranial sucking pump, which enables uptake of a wide range of fluid quantities from different food sources. Nectar-feeding species exhibit stereotypical proboscis movements during flower handling. Behavioral modifications and derived proboscis morphology are often associated with specialized feeding preferences or an obligatory switch to alternative food sources.
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Integrated Management of Sugarcane Whitegrubs in Australia: An Evolving Success
Vol. 55 (2010), pp. 329–349More LessCanegrubs, larvae of a complex of endemic melolonthine scarabs, are the key pests in Australian sugarcane. In the early 1990s, following the withdrawal of organochlorines, the Australian sugarcane industry faced a crisis with increasing canegrub damage. A comprehensive integrated pest management strategy was developed on the basis of research on a wide range of topics such as basic taxonomy, species identification, ecology and biology of the different species within the sugarcane system, development of new insecticides and new formulations of insecticides, potential development of genetically modified pest-resistant canes, and methods for predicting risk of infestations. The value of the research depended on a wide-ranging extension program that saw broadscale adoption of the new strategies. However, the cropping system is not static, and recent changes have the potential to alter plant architecture and phenology and therefore could affect canegrub biology, canegrub feeding, the impact of natural controls on canegrubs, and the accessibility to soil for sampling and insecticide application. Growers also demand cheaper, easier-to-use options.
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The Developmental, Molecular, and Transport Biology of Malpighian Tubules
Vol. 55 (2010), pp. 351–374More LessMolecular biology is reaching new depths in our understanding of the development and physiology of Malpighian tubules. In Diptera, Malpighian tubules derive from ectodermal cells that evaginate from the primitive hindgut and subsequently undergo a sequence of orderly events that culminates in an active excretory organ by the time the larva takes its first meal. Thereafter, the tubules enlarge by cell growth. Just as modern experimental strategies have illuminated the development of tubules, genomic, transcriptomic, and proteomic studies have uncovered new tubule functions that serve immune defenses and the breakdown and renal clearance of toxic substances. Moreover, genes associated with specific diseases in humans are also found in flies, some of which, astonishingly, express similar pathophenotypes. However, classical experimental approaches continue to show their worth by distinguishing between -omic possibilities and physiological reality while providing further detail about the rapid regulation of the transport pathway through septate junctions and the reversible assembly of proton pumps.
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Biorational Approaches to Managing Stored-Product Insects
Vol. 55 (2010), pp. 375–397More LessStored-product insects can cause postharvest losses, estimated from up to 9% in developed countries to 20% or more in developing countries. There is much interest in alternatives to conventional insecticides for controlling stored-product insects because of insecticide loss due to regulatory action and insect resistance, and because of increasing consumer demand for product that is free of insects and insecticide residues. Sanitation is perhaps the first line of defense for grain stored at farms or elevators and for food-processing and warehouse facilities. Some of the most promising biorational management tools for farm-stored grain are temperature management and use of natural enemies. New tools for computer-assisted decision-making and insect sampling at grain elevators appear most promising. Processing facilities and warehouses usually rely on trap captures for decision-making, a process that needs further research to optimize.
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Parallel Olfactory Systems in Insects: Anatomy and Function
Vol. 55 (2010), pp. 399–420More LessA striking commonality across insects and vertebrates is the recurring presence of parallel olfactory subsystems, suggesting that such an organization has a highly adaptive value. Conceptually, two different categories of parallel systems must be distinguished. In one, specific sensory organs or processing streams analyze different chemical stimuli (segregate parallel systems). In the other, similar odor stimuli are processed but analyzed with respect to different features (dual parallel systems). Insects offer many examples for both categories. For example, segregate parallel systems for different chemical stimuli are realized in specialized neuronal streams for processing sex pheromones and CO2. Dual parallel streams related to similar or overlapping odor stimuli are prominent in Hymenoptera. Here, a clear separation of sensory tracts to higher-order brain centers is present despite no apparent differences regarding the classes or categories of olfactory stimuli being processed. In this paper, we review the situation across insect species and offer hypotheses for the function and evolution of parallel olfactory systems.
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Integrative Taxonomy: A Multisource Approach to Exploring Biodiversity
Vol. 55 (2010), pp. 421–438More LessGood alpha taxonomy is central to biology. On the basis of a survey of arthropod studies that used multiple disciplines for species delimitation, we evaluated the performance of single disciplines. All included disciplines had a considerable failure rate. Rigor in species delimitation can thus be increased when several disciplines chosen for complementarity are used. We present a flexible procedure and stopping rule for integrative taxonomy that uses the information from different disciplines separately. Disagreement among disciplines over the number and demarcation of species is resolved by elucidating and invoking evolutionary explanations for disagreement. With the identification of further promising study organisms and of new questions for in-depth analysis, evolutionary biology should profit from integrative taxonomy. An important rationale is clarity in researcher bias in the decision-making process. The success of integrative taxonomy will further increase through methodological progress, taxonomic training of evolutionary biologists, and balanced resource allocation.
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Evolution of Plant Defenses in Nonindigenous Environments
Vol. 55 (2010), pp. 439–459More LessExotic plants provide a unique opportunity to explore the evolution of defense allocation in plants. Many studies have focused on whether enemy release leads to a change in defense allocation. Little research has focused on induced defenses and on how resource availability in the nonindigenous range might cause evolutionary shifts in defense trait allocation. We examine (a) the major evolutionary hypotheses predicting defense expression in plants, (b) the hypotheses explaining defense evolution of exotic species, and (c) the importance of geographic variation in ecological interactions to defense evolution (geographic mosaics). In addition, we review the strengths and weaknesses of experimental approaches, present case studies, and suggest areas that deserve further attention.
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Landscape Epidemiology of Vector-Borne Diseases
Vol. 55 (2010), pp. 461–483More LessLandscape epidemiology describes how the temporal dynamics of host, vector, and pathogen populations interact spatially within a permissive environment to enable transmission. The spatially defined focus, or nidus, of transmission may be characterized by vegetation as well as by climate, latitude, elevation, and geology. The ecological complexity, dimensions, and temporal stability of the nidus are determined largely by pathogen natural history and vector bionomics. Host populations, transmission efficiency, and therefore pathogen amplification vary spatially, thereby creating a heterogeneous surface that may be defined by remote sensing and statistical tools. The current review describes the evolution of landscape epidemiology as a science and exemplifies selected aspects by contrasting the ecology of two different recent disease outbreaks in North America caused by West Nile virus, an explosive, highly virulent mosquito-borne virus producing ephemeral nidi, and Borrelia burgdorferi, a slowly amplifying chronic pathogen producing semipermanent nidi.
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Role of Adhesion in Arthropod Immune Recognition
Vol. 55 (2010), pp. 485–504More LessThe recognition and inactivation of toxins and pathogens are mediated by a combination of cell-free and cellular mechanisms. A number of soluble and membrane-bound pattern recognition molecules interact with elicitors to become involved in both cell-free inactivation as well as cellular uptake reactions. Here we describe the possible recognition and effector function of key arthropod immune proteins, such as peroxinectin, hemolin, and hemomucin, as an outcome of changes in adhesiveness, which drive self-assembly reactions leading to cell-free coagulation and cellular uptake reactions. The fact that some of these proteins are essential for immune and developmental functions in some species, but are not found in closely related species, may point to the existence of multiprotein assemblies, which are conserved at the mechanistic level and can function with more than one combination of protein constituents.
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Physical Ecology of Fluid Flow Sensing in Arthropods
Vol. 55 (2010), pp. 505–520More LessTerrestrial and aquatic arthropods sense fluid flow in many behavioral and ecological contexts, using dedicated, highly sensitive mechanosensory hairs, which are often abundant. Strong similarities exist in the biomechanics of flow sensors and in the sensory ecology of insects, arachnids, and crustaceans in their respective fluid environments. We extend these considerations to flow in sand and its implications for flow sensing by arthropods inhabiting this granular medium. Finally, we highlight the need to merge the various findings of studies that have focused on different arthropods in different fluids. This could be achieved using the unique combination, for sensory ecology, of both a workable and well-accepted mathematical model for hair-based flow sensing, both in air and water, and microelectronic mechanical systems microtechnology to tinker with physical models.
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Managing Invasive Populations of Asian Longhorned Beetle and Citrus Longhorned Beetle: A Worldwide Perspective
Vol. 55 (2010), pp. 521–546More LessThe Asian longhorned beetle (ALB), Anoplophora glabripennis (Motschulsky), and citrus longhorned beetle (CLB), Anoplophora chinensis (Forster) (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae), are polyphagous xylophages native to Asia and are capable of killing healthy trees. ALB outbreaks began in China in the 1980s, following major reforestation programs that used ALB-susceptible tree species. No regional CLB outbreaks have been reported in Asia. ALB was first intercepted in international trade in 1992, mostly in wood packaging material; CLB was first intercepted in 1980, mostly in live plants. ALB is now established in North America, and both species are established in Europe. After each infestation was discovered, quarantines and eradication programs were initiated to protect high-risk tree genera such as Acer, Aesculus, Betula, Populus, Salix, and Ulmus. We discuss taxonomy, diagnostics, native range, bionomics, damage, host plants, pest status in their native range, invasion history and management, recent research, and international efforts to prevent new introductions.
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Threats Posed to Rare or Endangered Insects by Invasions of Nonnative Species
Vol. 55 (2010), pp. 547–568More LessEndangerment factors are reviewed for 57 U.S. federally listed insects and 116 rare eastern North American lepidopterans to determine the importance of invasive species relative to 15 other recognized endangerment factors. Invasive plants, social insects (especially ants), and vertebrate grazers and predators repeatedly were identified as groups directly or indirectly threatening native insect biodiversity. Among rare eastern North American lepidopterans, the (mostly indirect) consequences of the establishment of the gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar) surfaced as a general threat. Remote islands, especially those with high human visitation, stand out as being highly threatened by invasives. In the worst cases, impacts from invasive species cascade through a community and destabilize existing trophic interconnections and alter basic ecosystem properties, changing hydrology, nutrient cycles, soil chemistry, fire susceptibility, and light availability, and precipitate myriad other changes in biotic and abiotic parameters. Invasive ants and herbivorous insects provide some of the most dramatic examples of such insect-induced invasional cascades.
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Malaria Management: Past, Present, and Future
A. Enayati, and J. HemingwayVol. 55 (2010), pp. 569–591More LessThe prospect of malaria eradication has been raised recently by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation with support from the international community. There are significant lessons to be learned from the major successes and failures of the eradication campaign of the 1960s, but cessation of transmission in the malaria heartlands of Africa will depend on a vaccine and better drugs and insecticides. Insect control is an essential part of reducing transmission. To date, two operational scale interventions, indoor residual spraying and deployment of long-lasting insecticide-treated nets (LLINs), are effective at reducing transmission. Our ability to monitor and evaluate these interventions needs to be improved so that scarce resources can be sensibly deployed, and new interventions that reduce transmission in a cost-effective and efficient manner need to be developed. New interventions could include using transgenic mosquitoes, larviciding in urban areas, or utilizing cost-effective consumer products. Alongside this innovative development agenda, the potential negative impact of insecticide resistance, particularly on LLINs, for which only pyrethroids are available, needs to be monitored.
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Regulation of Midgut Growth, Development, and Metamorphosis
Vol. 55 (2010), pp. 593–608More LessThe insect midgut is an important site of entry for pathogens and insect control agents. This review focuses on recent information related to midgut epithelial growth, metamorphosis, and repair as a defense against pathogens. The roles of stem cell mitogens and differentiation factors are described. Included is a discussion of apoptosis and autophagy in the yellow body. Sloughing, also described, protects the midgut from virus infections and bacterial toxins through death and replacement of affected cells. The mechanisms by which the repair process reduces the effectiveness of pest control strategies are discussed. Primary tissue culture methods also are described, and their value in understanding the mechanisms by which biologically based insecticides work is discussed.
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Cellulolytic Systems in Insects
Vol. 55 (2010), pp. 609–632More LessDespite the presence of many carbohydrolytic activities in insects, their cellulolytic mechanisms are poorly understood. Whereas cellulase genes are absent from the genomes of Drosophila melanogaster or Bombyx mori, other insects such as termites produce their own cellulases. Recent studies using molecular biological techniques have brought new insights into the mechanisms by which the insects and their microbial symbionts digest cellulose in the small intestine. DNA sequences of cellulase and associated genes, as well as physiological and morphological information about the digestive systems of cellulase-producing insects, may allow the efficient use of cellulosic biomass as a sustainable energy source.
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Previous Volumes
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Volume 69 (2024)
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Volume 68 (2023)
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Volume 67 (2022)
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Volume 66 (2021)
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Volume 65 (2020)
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Volume 64 (2019)
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Volume 63 (2018)
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Volume 62 (2017)
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Volume 61 (2016)
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Volume 60 (2015)
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Volume 59 (2014)
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Volume 58 (2013)
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Volume 57 (2012)
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Volume 56 (2011)
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Volume 55 (2010)
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Volume 54 (2009)
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Volume 53 (2008)
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Volume 52 (2007)
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Volume 51 (2006)
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Volume 50 (2005)
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Volume 49 (2004)
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Volume 48 (2003)
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Volume 47 (2002)
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Volume 46 (2001)
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Volume 45 (2000)
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Volume 44 (1999)
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Volume 43 (1998)
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Volume 42 (1997)
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Volume 41 (1996)
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Volume 40 (1995)
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Volume 39 (1994)
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Volume 38 (1993)
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Volume 37 (1992)
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Volume 36 (1991)
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Volume 35 (1990)
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Volume 34 (1989)
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Volume 33 (1988)
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Volume 32 (1987)
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Volume 31 (1986)
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Volume 30 (1985)
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Volume 29 (1984)
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Volume 28 (1983)
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Volume 27 (1982)
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Volume 26 (1981)
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Volume 25 (1980)
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Volume 24 (1979)
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Volume 23 (1978)
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Volume 22 (1977)
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Volume 21 (1976)
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Volume 20 (1975)
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Volume 19 (1974)
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Volume 18 (1973)
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Volume 17 (1972)
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Volume 16 (1971)
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Volume 15 (1970)
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Volume 14 (1969)
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Volume 13 (1968)
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Volume 12 (1967)
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Volume 11 (1966)
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Volume 10 (1965)
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Volume 9 (1964)
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Volume 8 (1963)
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Volume 7 (1962)
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Volume 6 (1961)
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Volume 5 (1960)
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Volume 4 (1959)
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Volume 3 (1958)
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Volume 2 (1957)
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Volume 1 (1956)
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Volume 0 (1932)