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- Volume 1, 2009
Annual Review of Resource Economics - Volume 1, 2009
Volume 1, 2009
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The Economics of Urban-Rural Space
Vol. 1 (2009), pp. 435–459More LessThe emergence of urban-rural space, as evidenced by the expansion of low-density exurban areas and growth of amenity-based rural areas, is characterized by the merging of a rural landscape form with urban economic function. Changing economic conditions, including waning transportation and communication costs, technological change and economic restructuring, rising real incomes, and changing tastes for natural amenities, have led to this new form of urban-rural interdependence. We review the recent research on the causes and consequences of this growth at regional and metropolitan scales, discuss advances in empirical and theoretical economic models of urban land-use patterns at spatially disaggregate scales, and highlight research on environmental impacts and the efficacy of growth controls and land conservation programs that seek to manage this growth. The paper concludes with future research questions and needs. These include spatially disaggregate and accurate data, improved causal inference and structural modeling, and dynamic models that incorporate multiple sources of spatial and agent heterogeneity and interactions.
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Pricing Urban Congestion*
Vol. 1 (2009), pp. 461–484More LessThis paper reviews literature on the optimal design of pricing policies to reduce urban automobile congestion. The implications of a range of complicating factors are considered; these include traffic bottlenecks, constraints on which roads and freeway lanes in the road network can be priced, driver heterogeneity, private toll operators, other externalities besides congestion, and interactions between congestion taxes and the broader fiscal system. I also briefly discuss the incidence of congestion taxes and experience with this policy in the United States and elsewhere. Although the economics literature on congestion pricing has advanced considerably over the past 20 years, research is still needed on the empirical measurement of second-best efficient tolls for urban centers and whether alternative design features have substantial implications for efficiency. More research is also needed on the design of schemes to promote feasibility by compensating adversely affected groups with minimal loss in economic efficiency.
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The Economics of Endangered Species
Vol. 1 (2009), pp. 485–512More LessBecause habitat conversion is the greatest threat to species, this article focuses on economic incentives for private land users to protect habitat. Habitat protection policies that fail to account for private incentives often have unintended negative consequences. Private incentives for habitat protection depend on many factors: whether landowners are compensated for the costs of habitat protection, the design of compensation mechanisms, underlying property rights and security of tenure, the structure of conservation contracts, and whether markets can be created that internalize external benefits of habitat protection. In developing countries, agricultural price, credit, tax, and land tenure policies have important effects on the demand for habitat conversion. Private landowners often can provide crucial information about costs of habitat protection and species or habitat values on their property. Policies that encourage self-reporting of this information can greatly improve the cost effectiveness of policies to identify and acquire sites for species protection.
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On the Economics of Water Allocation and Pricing
Vol. 1 (2009), pp. 513–536More LessI present the economic principles of water allocation and pricing in a schematic water economy representing a wide range of real-world situations. The water policy has inter- and intratemporal components. The former determines extractions from the naturally replenished sources, given the stochastic nature of recharge processes. The latter is concerned mainly with the allocation of the extracted and produced water among the end users. The optimal water prices associated with the intratemporal allocation task are derived. Implementation of the optimal policy is discussed.
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The Economics of Agricultural R&D
Vol. 1 (2009), pp. 537–566More LessAgricultural research has transformed agriculture and in doing so contributed to the transformation of economies. Economic issues arise because agricultural research is subject to various market failures, because the resulting innovations and technological changes have important economic consequences for net income and its distribution, and because the consequences are difficult to discern and attribute. Economists have developed models and measures of the economic consequences of agricultural R&D and related policies in contributions that relate to a very broad literature ranging across production economics, development economics, industrial organization, economic history, welfare economics, political economy, econometrics, and so on. A key general finding is that the social rate of return to investments in agricultural R&D has been generally high. Specific findings differ depending on methods and modeling assumptions, particularly assumptions concerning the research lag distribution, the nature of the research-induced technological change, and the nature of the markets for the affected commodities.
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Supply and Demand of Electricity in the Developing World
Vol. 1 (2009), pp. 567–596More LessThis paper reviews the literature that has sought to quantify the determinants of electricity demand and supply efficiency in developing countries. We examine the causal relationship between electricity consumption and economic growth, price and income elasticities of demand, and the barriers to adoption of energy-efficient equipment. We also examine the performance outcomes of economic policies affecting the electricity sector, including institutional reforms such as privatization and regulation. We find that electricity demand is driven by GDP, prices, income, the level and characteristics of economic activity/urbanization, and seasonal factors. The magnitude of their effects differs across countries, time periods, and studies even for the same country. These demand studies suffer from a number of limitations, including data availability and price distortions that limit responsiveness of demand to price signals. The literature is inconclusive on whether reforms, particularly privatization, improved supply efficiency. Effective regulation, competitive markets, and appropriate sequencing of reforms are important factors that influence the outcomes of privatization. There is a need for more quantitative analysis of the social welfare and distributional impacts of privatization of the electricity sector in developing countries.
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Energy Efficiency Economics and Policy
Vol. 1 (2009), pp. 597–620More LessEnergy efficiency and conservation are considered key means for reducing greenhouse gas emissions and achieving other energy policy goals, but associated market behavior and policy responses have engendered debates in the economic literature. We review economic concepts underlying consumer decision making in energy efficiency and conservation and examine related empirical literature. In particular, we provide an economic perspective on the range of market barriers, market failures, and behavioral failures that have been cited in the energy efficiency context. We assess the extent to which these conditions provide a motivation for policy intervention in energy-using product markets, including an examination of the evidence on policy effectiveness and cost. Although theory and empirical evidence suggests there is potential for welfare-enhancing energy efficiency policies, many open questions remain, particularly relating to the extent of some key market and behavioral failures.
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Recent Developments in Renewable Technologies: R&D Investment in Advanced Biofuels
Vol. 1 (2009), pp. 621–644More LessInvestment in renewable energy, both in research and development and in commercial production, has risen significantly during the current decade. Although a variety of different renewable sources have been targeted for expansion, biomass technologies, especially those for converting biomass to liquid biofuels for transportation, have cornered a large share of the new investments. Cutting-edge knowledge in genomics and biotechnology, process chemistry, and engineering is being applied to produce new types of energy feedstock and process them into novel biofuels. If these investments bear fruit, liquid biofuels have the potential to displace a substantial amount of oil over the next few decades, with limited negative impact on food supply and the natural habitat. Energy-security and food-security constraints and environmental considerations will determine which technologies emerge as winners. The search for new transportation fuels is also giving rise to the development of new paradigms in innovation, commercialization, and regulation.
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Fuel Versus Food
Vol. 1 (2009), pp. 645–663More LessMany countries have actively encouraged the production of biofuels as a low-carbon alternative to the use of fossil fuels in transportation. To what extent do these trends imply a reallocation of scarce land away from food to fuel production? This paper critically reviews the small but growing literature in this area. We find that an increase in biofuel production may have a significant effect on food prices and, in certain parts of the world, in speeding up deforestation through land conversion. However, more research needs to be done to examine the effect of newer generation biofuel technologies that are less land intensive as well as the effect of environmental regulation and trade policies on land-use patterns.
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The Economics of Genetically Modified Crops
Vol. 1 (2009), pp. 665–694More LessGenetically modified (GM) crops have been used commercially for more than 10 years. Available impact studies of insect-resistant and herbicide-tolerant crops show that these technologies are beneficial to farmers and consumers, producing large aggregate welfare gains as well as positive effects for the environment and human health. The advantages of future applications could even be much bigger. Given a conducive institutional framework, GM crops can contribute significantly to global food security and poverty reduction. Nonetheless, widespread public reservations have led to a complex system of regulations. Overregulation has become a real threat for the further development and use of GM crops. The costs in terms of foregone benefits may be large, especially for developing countries. Economics research has an important role to play in designing efficient regulatory mechanisms and agricultural innovation systems.
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