Annual Review of Environment and Resources - Volume 23, 1998
Volume 23, 1998
- Preface
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- Review Articles
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From Physics to Development Strategies
Vol. 23 (1998), pp. 1–23More LessThe evolution of my career from purely academic research in experimental nuclear physics to science, followed by involvement in public affairs and administration, is described. Highlights in this trajectory are my involvement with the efforts to improve support for science activities and the protection of human rights of scientists in Brazil during the period of military government (1964–1984). The future role of nuclear energy in Brazil marked my transition toward a growing interest in energy alternatives and renewables. Finally, my activities first as the Rector of the University of São Paulo and then as a cabinet member in the federal government are described, as are the role I played in defusing the nuclear race between Argentina and Brazil and my participation in the Climate Conference in Rio in 1992.
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Rewards and Penalties of Monitoring the Earth
Vol. 23 (1998), pp. 25–82More LessWhen I began my professional career, the pursuit of science was in a transition from a pursuit by individuals motivated by personal curiosity to a worldwide enterprise with powerful strategic and materialistic purposes. The studies of the Earth's environment that I have engaged in for over forty years, and describe in this essay, could not have been realized by the old kind of science. Associated with the new kind of science, however, was a loss of ease to pursue, unfettered, one's personal approaches to scientific discovery. Human society, embracing science for its tangible benefits, inevitably has grown dependent on scientific discoveries. It now seeks direct deliverable results, often on a timetable, as compensation for public sponsorship. Perhaps my experience in studying the Earth, initially with few restrictions and later with increasingly sophisticated interaction with government sponsors and various planning committees, will provide a perspective on this great transition from science being primarily an intellectual pastime of private persons to its present status as a major contributor to the quality of human life and the prosperity of nations.
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SCIENCE AND NONSCIENCE CONCERNING HUMAN-CAUSED CLIMATE WARMINGfn1
Vol. 23 (1998), pp. 83–105More Less▪ AbstractThe human-caused global warming problem is now the focus of intense international attention in many sectors of society. As we learn more about the science of the problem, the sense of controversy about the state of the science has actually increased, sharply so over the past decade. This essay highlights the fundamental aspects of the science underlying global warming. The vital roles of climate models and of climate data in sharpening scientific understanding are featured. Finally, the roles of controversy in the science and the sociology of this problem are addressed, and new insights are offered on the inevitability of future major conflicts and controversies as society begins to deal with the need to either reduce the use of fossil fuels considerably or adapt to substantial changes in Earth's climate.
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CONSUMPTION OF MATERIALS IN THE UNITED STATES, 1900–19951
Grecia Matos, and Lorie WagnerVol. 23 (1998), pp. 107–122More Less▪ AbstractThe flows of nonfood and nonfuel materials through the economy have significant impact on our lives and the world around us. Growing populations and economies demand more goods, services, and infrastructure. Since the beginning of the twentieth century, the types of materials consumed in the United States have significantly changed. In 1900, on a per-weight basis, almost half of the materials consumed were from renewable resources, such as wood, fibers, and agricultural products, the rest being derived from nonrenewable resources. By 1995, the consumption of renewable resources had declined dramatically, to only 8% of total consumption. During this century, the quantity of materials consumed has grown, from 161 million metric tons in 1900 to 2.8 billion metric tons by 1995, an equivalent of 10 metric tons per person per year. Of all the materials consumed during this century, more than half were consumed in the last 25 years. This paper examines the general historical shifts in materials consumption and presents an analysis of different measurements of materials use and the significance of their trends.
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FUTURE TECHNOLOGIES FOR ENERGY-EFFICIENT IRON AND STEEL MAKING
Vol. 23 (1998), pp. 123–205More Less▪ AbstractTechniques for the reduction of the specific energy consumption for iron and steel making are identified and characterized to assess the potential for future energy-efficiency improvement and research and development priorities. Worldwide average specific energy consumption for steel making is estimated to be 24 GJ/tonne. The most energy-efficient process requires 19 GJ/tonne for primary steel and 7 GJ/tonne for secondary steel. Seven specific smelting reduction processes and four groups of near-net-shape casting techniques are described and evaluated. In the longer term, the specific energy consumption for making steel from iron ore can be reduced to 12.5 GJ of primary steel per tonne. A further reduction of up to 2.5 GJ of crude steel per tonne may be achieved when techniques are developed that can recover and apply heat from the hot steel at a high temperature. The specific energy consumption for secondary steel making can be reduced to 3.5 GJ/tonne by energy-efficient melting and shaping techniques.
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THE O2 BALANCE OF THE ATMOSPHERE: A Tool for Studying the Fate of Fossil-Fuel CO2
Vol. 23 (1998), pp. 207–223More Less▪ AbstractCarbon dioxide is a radiatively active gas whose atmospheric concentration increase is likely to affect Earth's climate. CO2 is added to the atmosphere by biomass burning and the combustion of fossil fuels. Some added CO2 remains in the atmosphere. However, substantial amounts are taken up by the oceans and land biosphere, attenuating the atmospheric increase. Atmospheric O2 measurements provide one constraint for partitioning uptake rates between the ocean and the land biosphere. Here we review studies of atmospheric O2 concentration variations and discuss their implications for CO2 uptake by the ocean and the land biosphere. We compare estimates of anthropogenic carbon fluxes from O2 studies with estimates from other approaches and examine the contribution of natural ocean carbon fluxes to atmospheric O2 variations.
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MEXICAN ELECTRIC END-USE EFFICIENCY: Experiences to Date
Vol. 23 (1998), pp. 225–252More Less▪ AbstractMexican government energy-efficiency programs since 1989 are reviewed to provide guidelines for other developing countries.
Energy-efficiency efforts must be multifaceted, flexible, and emphasize evaluation to allow learning-while-doing. Including the private sector incorporates their marketing expertise and accelerates a mature energy-efficiency market. Foreigners provide support and ideas, and serve as catalysts.
Initially, efforts can focus on creating an awareness of energy efficiency's benefits and potential, and support the evolution of an energy-efficiency infrastructure. Establishing institutions to coordinate government actions and others to finance implementation may be appropriate. Institutional effectiveness is enhanced by stipulating goals and mandates, and by providing adequate and secure budgets and staff. Marketing of efficient technologies succeeded when incentives were combined with financing. Minimum energy-efficiency standards for appliances were introduced quickly, but enforcement has been harder. Mexican programs under way are expected to save 8 TWh and 1.4 GW by the year 2000.
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DRINKING WATER IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
Vol. 23 (1998), pp. 253–286More Less▪ AbstractSafe drinking water remains inaccessible for about 1.1 billion people in the world, and the hourly toll from biological contamination of drinking water is 400 deaths of children (below age 5). This paper reviews the general guidelines for drinking water quality and the scale of the global problem. It reviews the various water disinfection technologies that may be applicable to achieve the desired quality of drinking water in developing countries. It then summarizes financing problems that deter extending access to safe drinking water to the unserved population and identifies feasible policy positions for enhancing availability of drinking water in these countries.
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ENGINEERING-ECONOMIC STUDIES OF ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES TO REDUCE GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS: Opportunities and Challengesfn1
Vol. 23 (1998), pp. 287–385More Less▪ AbstractThis paper compares the results of four recent engineering-economic studies of the potential for energy technologies to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The review includes a sector-by-sector assessment of specific technology opportunities and their costs, as estimated by (a) five National Laboratories, (b) the Tellus Institute, (c) the National Academy of Sciences, and (d) the Office of Technology Assessment. These studies document that numerous cost-effective, energy-efficient technologies remain underutilized in each end-use sector of the economy. Supply-side options, on the other hand, are generally found to involve some net costs. Demand- and supply-side options benefit from being pursued concurrently because of various interaction effects. In combination, large carbon reductions are possible at incremental costs that are less than the value of the energy saved. An aggressive national commitment involving some combination of targeted tax incentives, emissions trading, and non-price policies is needed to exploit these carbon reduction opportunities.
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CLIMATE CHANGE MITIGATION IN THE ENERGY AND FORESTRY SECTORS OF DEVELOPING COUNTRIESfn1
Vol. 23 (1998), pp. 387–437More Less▪ AbstractThe continued accumulation of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere is expected to severely impact the earth's natural resources and agriculture. Greenhouse gas emissions from the developing world are rising faster than those from other countries, and many studies have noted that it would not be possible to stabilize climate change without reducing the growth of these emissions. Can this be achieved without affecting economic growth and social fabric in these countries? Mitigation studies indicate that if energy efficiency and forestry options are implemented judiciously, emissions can be reduced at a negative cost without affecting economic growth. The studies also suggest that this would increase significantly the worldwide demand for natural gas and renewable technologies. Country studies show that the aggregate mitigation potential in the forestry sector is higher, and the costs per tonne of carbon are lower, than reported earlier by global studies. Barriers to the implementation of energy and forestry options need to be explicitly taken into consideration because these may change the priority of options and the choice of policy measures.
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TOWARD A PRODUCTIVE DIVORCE: Separating DOE Cleanups from Transition Assistance
Vol. 23 (1998), pp. 439–463More Less▪ AbstractCleanup of legacy waste and transition of US Department of Energy site communities to sustainable economic vitality have been melded inappropriately in one program. The results have been cleanup that costs far more and takes far longer than is necessary, and transition assistance that is ineffectual in meeting host communities' goals. Attempts at reform have largely failed because administrative and operational fixes clash with deep political and economic incentives. The status quo is unsustainable in the long run because of budgetary pressures and restiveness on the part of the public. Only systemic change, made possible by a Grand Agreement that separates the tasks, can bring realistic and lasting improvement. “Toward a Productive Divorce” analyzes the dynamics that have led to failure and outlines first steps for actions that will satisfy conflicting goals effectively and efficiently.
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RECYCLING METALS FOR THE ENVIRONMENT
Vol. 23 (1998), pp. 465–497More Less▪ AbstractSociety uses metals derived from primary and secondary sources. Secondary sources include all metals that have entered the economy but no longer serve their initial purpose. The environmental benefits of increasing reliance on secondary metal production include conserving energy, landscapes, and natural resources, and reducing toxic and nontoxic waste streams. A variety of technologies are used to recover and process metals from waste streams and their use for metal production influences the amount of secondary metal that reenters the system. Environmental regulation also affects secondary metal production through laws that control emissions and govern the classification and treatment of metal-loaded wastes. Industry must develop better technology to isolate and recover maximum value from metals in waste streams, and governments must institute policies that remove barriers to their economically and environmentally sound recovery. Only through a concerted effort can society recover a maximum amount of metal from the industrial/social system to benefit the environment.
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ENVIRONMENTALLY CONSCIOUS CHEMICAL PROCESS DESIGN
Vol. 23 (1998), pp. 499–536More Less▪ AbstractThe environment has emerged as an important determinant of the performance of the modern chemical industry. This paper reviews approaches for incorporating environmental issues into the design of new processes and manufacturing facilities. The organizational framework is the design process itself, which includes framing the problem and generating, analyzing, and evaluating alternatives. A historical perspective on the chemical process synthesis problem illustrates how both performance objectives and the context of the design have evolved to the point where environmental issues must be considered throughout the production chain. In particular, the review illustrates the need to view environmental issues as part of the design objectives rather than as constraints on operations. A concluding section identifies gaps in the literature and opportunities for additional research.
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Previous Volumes
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Volume 48 (2023)
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Volume 47 (2022)
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Volume 46 (2021)
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Volume 45 (2020)
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Volume 44 (2019)
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Volume 43 (2018)
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Volume 42 (2017)
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Volume 41 (2016)
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Volume 40 (2015)
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Volume 39 (2014)
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Volume 38 (2013)
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Volume 37 (2012)
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Volume 36 (2011)
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Volume 35 (2010)
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Volume 34 (2009)
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Volume 33 (2008)
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Volume 32 (2007)
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Volume 31 (2006)
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Volume 30 (2005)
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Volume 29 (2004)
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Volume 28 (2003)
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Volume 27 (2002)
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Volume 26 (2001)
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Volume 25 (2000)
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Volume 24 (1999)
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Volume 23 (1998)
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Volume 22 (1997)
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Volume 21 (1996)
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Volume 20 (1995)
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Volume 19 (1994)
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Volume 18 (1993)
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Volume 17 (1992)
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Volume 16 (1991)
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Volume 15 (1990)
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Volume 14 (1989)
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Volume 13 (1988)
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Volume 12 (1987)
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Volume 11 (1986)
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Volume 10 (1985)
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Volume 9 (1984)
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Volume 8 (1983)
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Volume 7 (1982)
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Volume 6 (1981)
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Volume 5 (1980)
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Volume 4 (1979)
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Volume 3 (1978)
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Volume 2 (1977)
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Volume 1 (1976)
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Volume 0 (1932)